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Mining and Quarrying

Nature of the Industry  |  Working Conditions  |  Employment  |  Occupations in the Industry
Training and Advancement  |  Job Outlook  |  Earnings

Significant Points

• Technological innovations, downsizing, environmental regulations, and international competition will continue to reduce employment in mining and quarrying.
• Most production jobs require little or no formal education or training beyond high school.
• Working conditions can be dangerous.
• Earnings are higher than the average for all occupations.

Nature of the Industry

Mining has played an important role in the development of the United States. In the past, the discovery of minerals such as gold and silver resulted in population shifts and economic growth. Extraction of minerals and coal continues to provide the foundation for local economies in some parts of the country. Products of this industry are used as inputs for consumer goods, processes, and services provided by all other industries, including agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, communication, and construction. Uses of mined materials include coal for energy, copper for wiring, gold for satellites and sophisticated electronic components, and a variety of other minerals as ingredients in medicines and household products. 
Besides mining and quarrying coal and metallic and nonmetallic minerals, employers in this industry explore for minerals and develop new mines and quarries. Metallic minerals include ores, such as bauxite—from which aluminum is extracted—copper, gold, iron, lead, silver, and zinc. Nonmetallic minerals include stone, sand, gravel, clay, and other minerals such as lime and soda ash, used as chemicals and fertilizers. This industry also includes initial mineral processing and preparation activities, because processing plants usually operate together with mines or quarries as part of the extraction process. (A separate section in the Career Guide covers careers in Oil and Gas Extraction.) 

Mining is the process of digging into the earth to extract naturally occurring minerals. There are two kinds of mining, surface mining and underground mining. Surface mining, also called open-pit mining or strip mining, is undertaken if the mineral is near the earth’s surface. This method usually is more cost-effective and requires fewer workers to produce the same quantity of ore than does underground mining. In surface mining, after blasting with explosives, workers use huge earthmoving equipment, such as power shovels or draglines, to scoop off the layers of soil and rock covering the mineral bed. Once the mineral is exposed, smaller shovels are used to lift it from the ground and load it into trucks. The mineral also can be broken up using explosives, if necessary. In quarrying operations, workers use machines to extract stone used primarily as a building material. Stone, such as marble, granite, limestone and sandstone, is quarried by splitting blocks of rock from a massive rock surface. 

Underground mining is used when the mineral deposit lies deep below the surface of the earth. When developing an underground mine, miners first must dig two or more openings, or tunnels, deep into the earth near the place where they believe coal or minerals are located. Depending on where the vein of ore is in relation to the surface, tunnels may be vertical, horizontal, or sloping. One opening allows the miners to move in and out of the mine with their tools and also serves as a path for transporting the mined rock by small railroad cars or by conveyor belts to the surface. The other opening is used for ventilation. 

Entries are constructed so that miners can get themselves and their equipment to the ore and carry it out, while allowing fresh air to enter the mine. Once dug to the proper depth, a mine’s tunnels interconnect with a network of passageways going in many directions. Long steel bolts and pillars of unmined ore support the roof of the tunnel. Using the room-and-pillar method, miners remove half of the ore as they work the ore seams from the tunnel entrance to the edge of the mine property, leaving columns of ore to support the ceiling. This process is then reversed, and the remainder of the ore is extracted, as the miners work their way back out. In the case of longwall mining of coal, self-advancing roof supports, made of hydraulic jacks and metal plates, are moved ahead, allowing the ceiling in the mined area to cave in as the miners work back towards the tunnel entrance. 

Once all the minerals or coal have been extracted, the mine and its surrounding environment must be restored to the condition that existed before mining began. In surface mining, the layers of topsoil, or overburden, that were removed in order to reach the mineral are used to fill in the mine and reshape the land. This ensures that native plants and animals will be able to thrive once again. Underground mining does not require as extensive a reclamation process; however, mine operators and environmental engineers still must ensure that ground water remains uncontaminated and that abandoned mines will not collapse. The reclamation process is highly regulated by Federal, State, and local laws, and reclamation plans often must be approved before mining permits will be granted. 

During the 1990s, production of both minerals and coal increased. Given the more volatile price of metal, its production fluctuated more than that of nonmetallics. However, employment in both sectors declined significantly, as new technology and more sophisticated mining techniques increased productivity, allowing growth in output while employing fewer workers. Most mining machines and control rooms are now automatic or computer-controlled, requiring fewer, if any, human operators. Many mines also operate with other sophisticated technology such as lasers and robotics, which further decrease the number of workers needed to mine materials. 

Working Conditions

The average worker in the coal mining industry worked 44.9 hours a week in 2000; workers in metal mining, and nonmetallic minerals, except fuels, worked an average of 43.7 and 46.2 hours a week, respectively. Work environments vary by occupation. Scientists and technicians work in office buildings and laboratories, while miners and mining engineers spend much of their time in the mine. Geologists who specialize in the exploration of natural resources may have to travel for extended periods to remote locations, in all types of climates, in order to locate mineral or coal deposits. 
Working conditions in mines and quarries can be unusual and sometimes dangerous. Underground mines are damp and dark, and some can be very hot. At times, several inches of water may cover tunnel floors. Although underground mines have electric lights, only the lights on miners’ caps illuminate many areas. Workers in mines with very low roofs may have to work on their hands and knees, backs, or stomachs, in confined spaces. In underground mining operations, dangers include the possibility of an explosion or cave-in, electric shock, or exposure to harmful gases. 

Workers in surface mines and quarries are subject to rugged outdoor work in all kinds of weather and climates. Some surface mines shut down in the winter, because snow and ice covering the minesite makes work too difficult. Physical strength and stamina are necessary, because the work involves lifting, stooping, and climbing. Surface mining, however, usually is less hazardous than underground mining. 

In 1999, the rate of work-related injury and illness was 5.0 per 100 full-time workers in metal mining, 4.3 in nonmetallic minerals, and 7.4 in coal mining, compared with 6.3 for the entire private sector. Although mine health and safety conditions have improved dramatically over the years, dust generated by drilling in mines still places miners at risk of developing either of two serious lung diseases: Pneumoconiosis, also called “black lung disease,” from coal dust, or silicosis from rock dust. The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 regulates dust concentrations in coal mines, and respirable dust levels are closely monitored. Dust concentrations in mines have declined as a result. Underground miners are now required to have their lungs x-rayed when starting a job, with a mandatory follow-up x-ray 3 years later, in order to monitor any development of respiratory illness. Additional x- rays are given every 5 years, on a voluntary basis. Workers who develop black lung disease or silicosis may be eligible for Federal aid.

Employment

There were approximately 231,000 wage and salary jobs in the mining and quarrying industry in 2000; around 77,000 in coal mining; 41,000 in metal mining; and 114,000 in nonmetallic mineral mining. According to the Energy Information Administration, there were around 1,450 coal mining operations in 28 States in 2000. About three-quarters of all coal mines are located in three States—Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Metal mining is more prevalent in the West and Southwest, particularly in Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. Nonmetallic mineral mining is the most widespread, as quarrying of nonmetallic minerals, such as stone, clay, sand, and gravel, is done in nearly every State. In many rural areas, mining and quarrying operations are the main employer. About 50 percent of mining and quarrying establishments employ fewer than 10 workers (see chart).

Occupations in the Industry

The mining and quarrying industry requires many kinds of workers. In 2000, 2 out of 3 workers were in construction and extraction, production, or transportation and material-moving occupations (table 1). 
Mining occupations. The majority of jobs in the mining and quarrying industry are in construction and extraction occupations. Though most of these jobs can be entered directly from high school, or after acquiring some experience and on-the-job training in an entry-level position, the increasing sophistication of equipment and machinery used in mining means a higher level of technical skill is now required for many positions. 

Underground mining primarily includes three methods—conventional, continuous, and longwall mining. Conventional mining, which is being phased out, is the oldest method, requiring the most workers and procedures. In this method, a strip or “kerf” is cut underneath the ore seam to control the direction in which the ore falls after it has been blasted. Cutting-machine operators use a huge electric chain saw with a cutter from 6 to 15 feet long to cut the kerf. Next, drilling-machine operators drill holes in the ore where the shot firers place explosives. This potentially dangerous work requires workers to follow safety procedures, such as making sure everyone is clear of the area before the explosives are detonated. After the blast, loading-machine operators scoop up the material and dump it into small rubber-tired cars run by shuttle-car operators, who bring the coal or ore to a central location for transportation to the surface. 

The continuous mining method eliminates the drilling and blasting operations of conventional mining by using a machine called a continuous miner. Traditionally, a continuous-mining machine operator sits or lies in a machine’s cab and operates levers that cut or rip out ore and load it directly onto a conveyor or shuttle car. However, the use of remote-controlled continuous mining machines—which have increased safety considerably—now allows an operator to control the machine from a distance. 

In longwall mining, which is similar to continuous mining, longwall-machine operators run large machines with rotating drums that automatically shear and load ore on a conveyor. At the same time, hydraulic jacks reinforce the roof of the tunnel. As ore is cut, the jacks are hydraulically winched forward, supporting the roof as they move along. 

Many other workers are needed to operate safe and efficient underground mines. Before miners are allowed underground, a mine safety inspector checks the work area for such hazards as loose roofs, dangerous gases, and inadequate ventilation. If safety standards are not met, the inspector prohibits the mine from producing until conditions are made safe. Rock-dust machine operators spray the mine walls and floor to hold down dust which can interfere with breathing. 

Roof bolters operate the machines that automatically install roof support bolts to prevent roof cave-ins, the biggest cause of mining injuries. Brattice builders construct doors, walls, and partitions in tunnel passageways to force air into the work areas. Shift bosses, or blue-collar worker supervisors, oversee all operations at the worksite. 

In surface mining, most miners operate huge machines that either remove the earth above the ore deposit, or dig and load the ore onto trucks. The number of workers required to operate a surface mine depends on the amount of overburden, or earth, above the ore seam. In many surface mines, the overburden is first drilled and blasted. Overburden stripping operators or dragline operators then scoop the earth away to expose the coal or metal ore. Some draglines are among the largest land machines on earth. 

Next, loading-machine operators rip the exposed ore from the seam and dump it into trucks to be driven to the preparation plant. Tractor operators use bulldozers to move earth and ore and to remove boulders or other obstructions. Truckdrivers haul ore to railroad sidings or to preparation plants and transport supplies to mines. 

Construction, maintenance, and repair occupations. Other workers, who are not directly involved in the extraction process, work in and around mines and quarries. For example, skilled mechanics are needed to repair and maintain the wide variety of mining machinery, and skilled electricians are needed to check and install electrical wiring. Mechanical and electrical repair work has become increasingly complex, as machinery and other equipment have become computerized. Carpenters construct and maintain benches, bins, and stoppings (barricades to prevent air flow through a tunnel). These workers generally need specialized training to work under the unusual conditions found in mines. Mechanics, for example, may have to repair machines while on their knees, with only their headlamps to illuminate the working area. 

Quarrying occupations. Workers at quarries have duties similar to miners. Using jackhammers and wedges, rock splitters remove pieces of stone from a rock mass. Dredge operators and dipper tenders operate power-driven dredges, or dipper sticks of dredges, to mine sand, gravel, and other materials from beneath the surface of lakes, rivers, and streams. Using power-driven cranes with dragline buckets, dragline operators excavate or move sand, gravel, and other materials. 

Processing-plant occupations. Processing plants often are located next to mines or quarries. In these plants, rocks and other impurities are removed from the ore, which is then washed, crushed, sized, or blended to meet buyer specifications. Methods for physically separating the ore from surrounding material also include more complex processes, such as leaching—mixing the ore with chemical solutions or other liquids in order to separate materials. Most processing plants are highly mechanized and require only a few workers for the washing, separating, and crushing operations. Processing-plant supervisors oversee all operations. In plants that are not heavily mechanized, washbox attendants operate equipment that sizes and separates impurities from ore, and shake tenders monitor machinery that further cleans and sizes ore with a vibrating screen. Most jobs in the processing plant are repetitive and, as a result of highly computerized mechanization, are becoming more automated.

Management, business, and financial and professional and related occupations. Administrative workers include top executives, who are responsible for making policy decisions. Staff specialists (such as accountants, attorneys, and market researchers) provide information and advice for policymakers. 

Professional and related workers in mining and quarrying include engineering, scientific, and technical personnel. Environmental scientists and geoscientists search for locations likely to yield coal or mineral ores in sufficient quantity to justify extraction costs. Using sophisticated technologies and equipment, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS)—a satellite system that locates points on the earth using radio signals transmitted by satellites—surveyors help map areas for mining. Mining and geological engineers examine seams for depth and purity, determine the type of mine to build, and supervise the construction, maintenance, and operation of mines. Mechanical engineers oversee the installation of equipment, such as heat and water systems; electrical engineers oversee the installation and maintenance of electrical equipment; civil engineers oversee the building and construction of minesites, plants, roads, and other infrastructure; safety engineers direct health and safety programs; chemical engineers develop the chemical processes for transforming mined products into consumer goods, such as medications and fertilizers; and materials engineers determine the usefulness of mined ore and also develop processes for transforming the minerals into products. 

Environmental engineers play an increasingly important role in mining and quarrying, given environmental concerns and stringent Federal, State, and local regulations imposed on all operations. Restrictions imposed by environmental regulations make obtaining permits for new mine development projects increasingly difficult. Mine owners and operators face substantial penalties should they fail to abide by current regulations. In addition, both Federal regulations, such as the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), and State laws require that land reclamation be part of the mining process. Reclamation plans usually must be approved by both government officials and local interest groups. When a mining operation is closed, the land must be restored to its premine condition, which can include anything from leveling soil and removing waste to replanting vegetation. 

Exploration, mine design, impact assessment, and restoration efforts can depend on computer analysis. In addition, rapid technological advancements, particularly in processing-plant operations, are the result of increased computerization. This has led to a growing reliance on computer professionals, such as systems analysts and computer software engineers.

Training & Advancement

Workers in mining and quarrying production occupations must be at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and able to work in confined spaces. A high school diploma is not necessarily required. Most workers start as helpers to experienced workers and learn skills on the job; however, formal training is becoming more important, as more technologically advanced machinery and mining methods are used. Some employers prefer to hire recent graduates of high school vocational programs in mining or graduates of junior college or technical school programs in mine technology. Such programs usually are found only at schools in mining areas. 
Mining companies must offer formal training in either classrooms or training mines for a few weeks before new miners actually begin work. The Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977 mandates that each U.S. mine have an approved worker training program in health and safety issues. Each plan must include at least 40 hours of basic safety training for new miners with no experience in underground mines, and 24 hours for new miners in surface mines. In addition to new miner training, each miner must receive at least 8 hours of refresher safety training a year, and miners assigned to new jobs must receive safety training relating to their new task. The U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration also conducts classes on health, safety, and mining methods, and some mining machinery manufacturers offer courses in machine operation and maintenance as well. 

As production workers gain more experience, they can advance to higher paying jobs requiring greater skill. A mining machine operator’s helper, for example, may become an operator. When vacancies occur, announcements are posted, and all qualified workers can bid for the job. Positions are filled on the basis of seniority and ability. Miners with significant experience or special training also can become mine safety inspectors. According to the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration, an inspector needs at least 5 years' experience as a miner, or a degree in mining engineering. 

For professional and managerial positions in mining and quarrying, a master’s degree in engineering, one of the physical sciences, or business administration, is preferred. A number of colleges and universities have mining schools or departments and programs in mining or minerals. Environmental positions require regulatory knowledge and a strong natural science background, or a background in a technical field, such as environmental engineering or hydrology. To date, most environmental professionals have been drawn from the ranks of engineers and scientists who have had experience in the mining and quarrying industry. 

Universities and mining schools have introduced more environmental coursework into their programs, and mining and quarrying firms are hiring professionals from existing environment-related disciplines and training them to meet their companies’ needs. Additionally, specialized mine technology programs are offered by a few colleges. Enrollment in these programs can lead to a certificate in mine technology after 1 year, an associate degree after 2 years, or a bachelor’s degree after 4 years. Courses cover areas such as mine ventilation, roof bolting, and machinery repairs. 

Job Outlook

Wage and salary employment in mining and quarrying is expected to decline by 14 percent through the year 2010, compared with 16 percent growth projected for the entire economy. This continuing long-term decline is due to increased productivity, resulting from technological advances in mining operations, downsizing, stringent environmental regulations, and international competition. 
Increasing costs of environmental compliance, investments in new and expensive technology, and low commodity prices have forced mining companies to merge with one another in order to contain costs and expand their business. As a result of these mergers, mines are becoming larger, while employing fewer mining workers. 

The ability of U.S mines to remain internationally competitive also will influence the long-term outlook. Currently, U.S. mines are among the most technologically advanced in the world; however, mining operations in other countries have lower labor costs and are subject to fewer government regulations. In addition, pending reform of the Mining Law of 1872, which involves issues such as access to public lands and the payment of royalties, is of particular concern to the mining industry. Changes in policies could have significant long-term implications; and uncertainty over restrictions, regulations, and the future of this law could serve to focus more exploration and investment opportunities elsewhere. 

The Internet likely will have an impact on the mining and quarrying industry as well. Mining and quarrying companies and their suppliers are highly localized operations. Business-to-business ("B2B") electronic commerce ("e-commerce") will allow companies to gain access to a larger market for their products, while seeking out the lowest cost suppliers for their needs. B2B e-commerce will likely make the mining and quarrying industry more efficient, while reducing costs. However, companies also would face increased competition from new companies attempting to enter their market. Declining employment will be led by a decline in the coal mining sector. The products of the coal mining industry are used to produce electricity and steel products. Although production of coal is expected to increase, employment should continue to decline, as more efficient and automated production operations require less labor. Advances in longwall and surface mining, which are less labor intensive, have increased productivity, as have improvements in transportation and processing. Additionally, innovations such as roof bolting, self-advancing roof supports, and continuous mining machinery have led to safer, more efficient operations. 

The long-term outlook for coal also depends on how electric utility companies—the major consumers of coal—respond to provisions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, which attempt to limit the emission of sulfur dioxide and other harmful pollutants. Phase I of the Amendments, which took effect in 1995, requires reductions in sulfur emissions from coal combustion. Phase II took effect in 2000, and not only imposes stricter reductions in emissions, but targets the smaller coal-burning plants, not just the largest ones as in Phase I. Compliance involves the installation of costly cleaning and monitoring equipment or increased use of low-sulfur coal. The largest industrial nations also have been pressuring each other to decrease emissions of harmful gases into the atmosphere. As energy plants seek cleaner burning fuel, many new powerplants are being built to run on natural gas. If the demand for coal declines as a result of stricter environmental regulations, employment in mines will decline further, as mine operators are forced to decrease production. 

Despite the trend towards cleaner burning fuel, the United States still is highly dependent on coal as a source of energy. Coal accounts for half of the electricity production in this country because it is the cheapest and most abundant fossil fuel. The rising demand for cleaner burning fuel has resulted in regional shifts in coal production and markets. Because of this, lower-sulfur western coal now accounts for an increasing share of output. This trend is resulting in a gradual regional shift in employment from the eastern States to the West. Improvements in clean coal technologies also may help the industry cope with increasingly restrictive regulations through projects such as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). This technology combines traditional coal gasification with gas-turbine and steam power to generate electricity more efficiently and reduce carbon and sulfur dioxide emissions. 

As in coal mining, continuing productivity increases are expected to cause employment in the metal mining industry to decline through 2010. Because metals are used primarily as raw materials by other industries, such as steel, chemical and drug manufacturing, aerospace, automobile, and telecommunications, the strength of the metal mining industry is greatly affected by the strength of the industries that consume its products. The strength of these industries usually reflects the state of the U.S. and global economies. Employment in the metal mining industry declined during the early 1990s when consumer demand was low, and experienced growth in the late 1990s, when economic growth and consumer demand were high. Thus, the strength of the economy over the next decade will influence employment in the metal mining industry. 

Production of certain metals also is affected by the global market prices for those particular metals. For example, despite demand for gold in electronic and telecommunication components, gold prices have fallen in recent years. Gold mines with high costs of operations have been forced either to close or to decrease production, and therefore employ fewer workers. 

Like the metal mining industry, the nonmetallic mineral industry is influenced by the strength of the industries that use nonmetals in the manufacture of their products. These nonmetallic minerals are used to make concrete and agricultural chemicals and also are used as materials in residential, nonresidential, and maintenance construction activity. This industry experienced slight employment growth over the past decade, largely attributed to construction. The demand for crushed stone and gravel should remain strong in the next few years because Congress recently increased spending for the building and maintenance of roads and highways. However, employment is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Also, as in the other sectors of the mining industry, technological changes will continue to increase productivity, limiting the need for workers. Despite current levels of demand for minerals used in construction, overall employment in nonmetallic mining is expected to decline through 2010.  

Earnings

Workers covered by UMWA contracts receive 11 paid holidays, 12 days of paid vacation each year, 4 additional floating holidays, and 5 days of sick leave; however, coal miners generally must take their vacations during 1 of 3 regular vacation periods, to assure a continuous supply of coal. As length of service increases, UMWA miners get up to 13 extra vacation days after 18 years of continuous employment. Union workers also receive benefits from a welfare and retirement fund.
 

Table 3. Median hourly earnings of the largest occupations in coal mining and nonmetallic minerals, except fuels, 2000
Occupation	Metal mining	Coal mining	Nonmetallic minerals,except fuels	All industries
Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers	$27.40	$29.23	$28.08	$29.24
First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers	26.03	25.83	20.59	21.53
Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators	18.97	17.04	13.44	15.99
Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters	18.95	16.08	14.02	15.84
Maintenance workers, machinery	18.47	17.37	12.31	14.89
Electricians	18.40	20.14	17.35	19.29
Industrial machinery mechanics	18.39	21.35	21.93	17.30
Continuous mining machine operators	18.32	16.16	13.62	15.64
Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders	18.02	18.64	12.83	11.99
Earth drillers, except oil and gas	17.34	15.67	13.75	14.68
Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators	16.05	16.05	13.24	14.94
Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand	16.04	14.70	11.28	9.04

Source: Career Guide to Industries, Bureau of Labor Statistics

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