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State and Local Government, Excluding Education and Hospitals

Nature of the Industry  |  Working Conditions  |  Employment  |  Occupations in the Industry
Training and Advancement  |  Job Outlook  |  Earnings

Significant Points

• An excellent economy has led to budget surpluses in many State and local governments, allowing for increased spending on programs and employment.
• State government has a larger percentage of management and professional occupations, while local government employs a higher share of service workers.

Nature of the Industry

State and local governments provide vital services to their constituents, such as transportation, public safety, healthcare, education, utilities, and courts. Excluding education and hospitals, State and local governments employ about 7.5 million workers, placing them among the largest employers in the economy. Almost two-thirds of these employees work for local governments, such as counties, cities, special districts, and towns. (State and local government hospitals are included in the health services industry and public education is a major part of educational services, both of which appear elsewhere in the Career Guide.) 

In addition to the 50 State governments, there are about 87,000 local governments, according to the Bureau of the Census. These include about 3,000 county governments; 19,400 municipal governments; 16,600 townships; 13,700 school districts; and 34,700 special districts. Illinois had the most local government units, with more than 6,800; Hawaii had the fewest, with 19. 

In many areas of the country, citizens are served by more than one local government unit. For example, most States have counties, which may contain various municipalities such as cites or towns, but which also often include unincorporated rural areas. Townships, which do not exist in some States, may or may not contain municipalities and often consist of suburban or rural areas. Supplementing these forms of local government, special district government bodies are independent, limited purpose governmental units that usually perform a single function or activity. For example, a large percentage of special districts manage the use of natural resources. Some provide drainage and flood control, irrigation, and soil and water conservation services. 

The Council of State Governments reports that State and local governments’ responsibilities were augmented in the 1990s through “devolution,” the practice through which the Federal Government turns over to State and local governments the development, implementation, and management of programs. Welfare reform typifies devolution in practice, with States receiving considerable leeway to devise programs that meet their needs as a result of the 1996 Congressional reform act that provided block grants to States. As the relationship between levels of government continues to change in the coming decade, so will the nature of services provided by State and local governments. 

Working Conditions

Most professional, financial operations, and office and administrative support occupations in State and local government work a standard 40-hour week in an office environment. However, workers in some of the most visible local government jobs have very different working conditions and schedules. Firefighters’ hours are longer and vary more widely than those of most workers. Many professional firefighters are on duty for several days in a row, working over 50 hours a week, because some must be on duty at all times to respond to emergencies. They often eat and sleep at the fire station. Following this long shift, they are then off for several days in a row or for the entire next week. In addition to irregular hours, firefighting can involve the risk of death or injury. Some local fire districts also use the services of volunteer firefighters, who tend to work shorter, regularly scheduled shifts.

Law enforcement work also is potentially dangerous. The injury and fatality rates among law officers are higher than in many occupations, reflecting risks taken in apprehending suspected criminals and responding to various emergency situations such as traffic accidents. Most police and detectives work 40 hours a week, with paid overtime when they testify in court or work on an investigation. Because police protection must be provided around the clock, some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. Many officers are subject to call anytime their services are needed and are expected to intervene whenever they observe a crime, even if off duty.

Most driver/operator jobs in public transit systems are stressful and fatiguing because they involve dealing with passengers, tight schedules, and heavy traffic. Busdrivers with regular routes and subway operators generally have consistent weekly work schedules. Those who do not have regular schedules may be on-call and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. To accommodate commuters, many operators work “split shifts,” for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between.

A number of other State and local government jobs also require weekend or night work. Because electricity, gas, and water are produced and used continuously throughout each day, for example, split, weekend, and night shifts are common for utility workers.  

Employment

Occupations in the Industry

Service occupations comprised the largest share of employment in State and local governments, accounting for 31 percent of all jobs (table 2). Of these, police and sheriff’s patrol officers, correctional officers and jailers, and firefighters were the largest occupations. Office and administrative support occupations accounted for 21 percent of employment; professional and related occupations accounted for 21 percent, and management, business, and financial occupations, 12 percent. 

Local government employs a smaller proportion of management, business, financial, and professional workers than does State government. Local government, on the other hand, employs a larger share of service workers, particularly firefighters and law enforcement workers (see chart). 

State and local governments employ people in occupations that are found in nearly every industry in the economy, including chief executives, managers, engineers, computer occupations, secretaries, and technicians. Certain occupations, however, are mainly or exclusively found in governments, such as legislators; tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents; urban and regional planners; judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers; police and sheriff's patrol officers; and correctional officers and jailers. 

Chief executives, general and operations managers, and legislators establish government policy and develop laws, rules, and regulations. They are elected or appointed officials who either preside over units of government or make laws. Chief executives include governors, lieutenant governors, mayors, and city managers. General and operations managers include district managers and revenue directors. Legislators include State senators and representatives, county commissioners, and city council members. 

Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents determine tax liability and collect past-due taxes from individuals or businesses. Urban and regional planners draft plans and recommend programs for the development and use of resources such as land and water. They also propose construction of physical facilities such as schools and roads under the authority of cities, counties, and metropolitan areas. Planners devise strategies outlining the best use of community land and identify the places in which residential, commercial, recreational, and other types of development should be located. 

Judges arbitrate, advise, and administer justice in a court of law. They oversee legal processes in courts and apply the law to resolve civil disputes and determine guilt in criminal cases. Magistrates resolve criminal cases not involving penitentiary sentences and civil cases involving damages below a sum specified by State law. 

Social workers counsel and assess the needs of clients, refer them to the appropriate sources of help, and monitor their progress. Eligibility interviewers, government programs interview and investigate applicants and recipients to determine eligibility to receive, or continue receiving, welfare and other types of social assistance. Social and human service assistants ’ duties vary with specific job titles. These workers include social service technicians, case management aides, social work assistants, residential counselors, alcoholism or drug abuse counseling aides, child abuse workers, community outreach workers, and gerontology aides. 

Court, municipal, and license clerks perform a variety of State and local government administrative tasks. Court clerks prepare dockets of cases to be called, secure information for judges, and contact witnesses, lawyers, and attorneys to obtain information for the court. Municipal clerks draft agendas for town or city councils, record minutes of council meetings, answer official correspondence, keep fiscal records and accounts, and prepare reports on civic needs. License clerks keep records and help the public obtain motor vehicle ownership titles, operators permits, and a variety of other permits and licenses. 

Firefighters control and extinguish fires, assist with emergency medical treatment, and assist in recovery from natural disasters such as earthquakes and tornadoes. Fire inspectors inspect public buildings for conditions that might present a fire hazard. 

Police and sheriff's patrol officers and detectives and criminal investigators have duties that range from controlling traffic to preventing and investigating crimes. They maintain order; enforce laws and ordinances; issue traffic summonses; investigate accidents; give evidence in court; serve legal documents for the court system; and apprehend, arrest, and process prisoners. State and local correctional officers guard inmates in jails, prisons, or juvenile detention institutions. Bailiffs keep order in courts. 

Busdrivers and subway and streetcar operators pick up and deliver passengers at prearranged stops throughout their assigned routes. Operators may collect fares, answer questions about schedules and transfer points, and in some cases announce stops. 

Training & Advancement

The education level and experience needed by workers in State and local government varies by occupation. Voters elect most chief executives and legislators, so local support is very important. Volunteer work and community services are valuable ways to establish vital community support. Those elected to these positions come from a variety of backgrounds, but must conform to age, residency, and citizenship regulations. Advancement opportunities for most elected public officials are limited to other offices in the jurisdictions in which they live. For example, a local council member may run for mayor or for a position in State government, and State legislators may decide to run for governor or Congress. 

A master’s degree in public administration is widely recommended, but not required, for city managers. They may gain experience as management analysts or assistants in government departments working with councils and mayors. After several years, they may be hired to manage a town or a small city and eventually become manager of larger cities. 

For most professional jobs, a college degree is required. To obtain an entry-level urban or regional planning position, most State and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban and regional planning or the equivalent in work experience. To become a judge, particularly a State trial or appellate court judge, one usually is required to be a lawyer. About half of all State judges are appointed, and the other half are elected in partisan or nonpartisan elections. Most State and local judges serve fixed terms, ranging from 4 or 6 years for limited jurisdiction judges to 14 years for some appellate court judges. 

Most applicants for firefighting jobs must have a high school education or its equivalent and pass a civil service examination. In addition, they need to pass a medical examination and tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or as a firefighter in the Armed Forces is helpful, as is completion of community college courses in fire science. Recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, local building codes, emergency procedures, and the proper use of rescue equipment. Firefighters may be promoted depending on written examination results and job performance. 

Busdrivers must comply with Federal regulations that require drivers who operate vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers to obtain a commercial driver’s license from the State in which they live. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a written test on rules and regulations and demonstrate that they can operate a commercial vehicle safely. For subway and streetcar operator jobs, applicants with at least a high school education have the best chance. In some cities, prospective subway operators are required to work as busdrivers for a specified period. Successful applicants generally are in good health, possess good communication skills, and are able to make quick, sound judgments. Because busdrivers and subway operators deal with passengers, they need an even temperament and emotional stability. Driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. 

Police departments in most areas require applicants to be U.S. citizens of good character, at least 20 years old, and able to meet rigorous physical and mental standards. Police departments increasingly encourage applicants to take college courses, and some require a college degree. Many community and junior colleges, as well as colleges and universities, offer programs in law enforcement or criminal justice. Officers usually attend a local or regional police academy, which includes classroom instruction in constitutional law, civil rights, and State and local law. They also receive training in patrol, accident investigation traffic control, using firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency management. Promotions for police officers are highly influenced by scores on a written civil service examination and subsequent performance evaluations by their superiors. 

Job Outlook

Wage and salary employment in State and local government is projected to increase about 11 percent during the 2000-2010 period, slower than the 16 percent growth projected for all sectors of the economy combined. Employment growth will stem from the rising demand for services at the State and local levels. An increasing population and State and local assumption of responsibility for some services previously provided by the Federal Government are fueling the growth of these services. Despite the increased demand for the services of State and local governments, employment growth will be dampened by budgetary constraints due to reductions in Federal aid, especially at the county level, and resistance from citizens to tax increases. 

Professional and service occupations will account for almost three-fourths of all new jobs in State and local government. Most new jobs will stem from rising demand for protective services, community and social services, health services, and information technology. For example, rapid increases in demand for services for the elderly, the mentally impaired, and children will spur growth of social workers and social and human service assistants. Employment growth in protective service occupations will be spurred by rising demand for law enforcement and correctional officers to oversee the increasing population of convicted offenders. 

Slower growth is projected for management and administrative support occupations. Employment of chief executives and general managers will grow slowly through the year 2010 because the number of these positions generally remains fairly stable. Employment change occurs in rare situations, such as when a small town switches from a volunteer chief executive to a manager or paid mayor. Employment in office and administrative support occupations in State and local government is expected to increase very little and employment in many occupations is projected to decline, as the increasing use of personal computers by professionals and managers continues to reduce the need for secretaries, word processors and typists, and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. 

Employment of production and repair workers will grow slowly in response to governments’ increasing tendency to contract out some services. Increased demand for transportation services should produce slow growth in employment of transportation and material-moving occupations through the year 2010.  

Earnings

Employer-provided benefits—including health and life insurance and retirement benefits—are more common among State and local government employees than among workers in the private sector.
 

Table 4. Median annual salary for selected executive and managerial occupations in local government, 2000
Occupation	Salary
City manager	$75,000
Engineer	64,596
Information services director	61,657
Assistant chief administrative officer	60,427
Chief administrative officer	59,664
Chief financial officer	60,882
Economic development /planning director	58,220
Fire chief	57,000
Chief law enforcement official	55,862
Human resources director	54,440
Public works director	54,309
Health officer	52,125
Human services director	50,396
Parks and recreation director	50,086
Purchasing director	47,467
Chief librarian	42,940
Clerk	39,811
Treasurer	38,508
Chief elected officials	5,400

Source: Career Guide to Industries, Bureau of Labor Statistics

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